Importance Of Serial Dilution In Serology
ImportanceOfSerialDilutionInSerology
Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasmosis Infectious Disease and Antimicrobial Agents. ETIOLOGYToxoplasma gondii is an intracellular organism which infects warm blooded animals and humans. Toxoplasma is one of the most important sources of foodborne diseases and congenital infection. An estimated 1. 5 billion people globally are infected, frequently with unknown lifelong health complications 8. Toxoplasma is Category B pathogenic agent according the Center for Disease Control CDC, and National Institute of Health NIH. Following acute phase, the organisms dwell mainly in muscles and brain in cyst forms for the lifetime awaiting to be reactivated. Toxoplasma was discovered a century ago 1. Nicolle and Manceaux in an African rodent. Despite ever since ongoing investigations, yet there is no safe and effective therapy for congenital, chronic infection or a vaccine available to prevent toxoplasmosis. Life Cycle. Toxoplasma is an Apicomplexan protozoan parasite with sexual stage which takes place after oral infection in the intestinal epithelia of cats, as organisms replicate and mature to form resistant oocysts passed in the feces 6. Oocysts are formed by gametogony and sporogony. Cats usually become infected within 6 months of their life and pass unsporulated immature oocysts for about 1 2 weeks. Windows 7 Serial Port Communication C. Approximately millions of oocysts are excreted in the feces of cat 5 to 2. Unsporulated oocysts become sporulated and mature in about 1 to 2 days in the moist soil to become infective forms of sporozoites. Sporozoites within protective oocyst are highly infectious when ingested and oocysts can remain viable in warm moist soil for over 1 year. Express Helpline Get answer of your question fast from real experts. Original Article. MType Phospholipase A 2 Receptor as Target Antigen in Idiopathic Membranous Nephropathy. Laurence H. Beck, Jr., M. D., Ph. D., Ramon G. B. Bonegio, M. Many folks have been asking for exam recalls to be emailed to them. Fortunately, your colleagues have previously posted and continue to post recall questions from. Importance Of Serial Dilution In Serology' title='Importance Of Serial Dilution In Serology' />Humans and animals acquire systemic form of infection in asexual stage through consumption of contaminated animal products including fresh untreated milk, rawundercooked meat and seafood or mature oocysts in water, fruits and vegetables 5. After sporozoites are released in the body they transform into tachyzoites, and attack every type of nucleated cells. Tachyzoites are the proliferative form in acute stage and reactivated stage of chronic infection. Bradyzoites are shaped in the dormant cysts during inactive or chronic stage of infection which replicate more slowly than the tachyzoites. Alternative Program Sheriff Work'>Alternative Program Sheriff Work. Small pseudocysts are formed in tissues mainly during the early infection about a week after infection. Tissue cysts are formed within the host cells after acute stage and may contain thousands of bradyzoites which can persist as viable organisms as long as the host lives 1. Presence of the free tachyzoites establishes an active toxoplasmosis susceptible to available anti Toxoplasma drugs. Tissue cysts are formed within the host cells which protect the bradyzoites against antimicrobial agent. The slow replicating bradyzoites are protected by the cyst wall against the action of the most available antimicrobial drugs. Bradyzoites are less susceptible to destruction by proteolytic enzymes than tachyzoites 5. Tissue cysts detection in biopsy specimens in addition to presence of inflammatory cells in the vicinity of the cysts determine patient with reactivation of dormant. Toxoplasma infection. Sporozoites are highly infectious when ingested. Oocysts can remain viable in environment for long period of time. Toxoplasmosis Transmission. Toxoplasmosis is not acquired by casual direct contact from infected person with intact skin or airborne. The common routes of transmission include a. Foodborne by contaminated water, milk, meat, unwashed fruits and vegetables or utensils. Fetal Maternal congenital. Cat man and animals By handling contaminated soil, water and accidental fecal oral infection. Contaminated blood and organ transplant transmission. Less common routes are Sexual Transmission by contaminated semen, and body fluid. Accidental lab acquired infection by inoculation of contaminated material. Breast feed transmission through contaminated milk with cysts and tachyzoites or environmental contamination of udders with oocysts. Toxoplasma tachyzoites are secreted into milk in various farm animals. Contaminated milk transmission from farm animals has been reported by the consumption of unpasteurized milk from livestock as well as less common farm animals like camels and donkeys milk 4. Tachyzoites survive in the fresh milk and milk products in refrigeration for several days and can transmit the infection. Appropriate heating, freezing, or pasteurization can eliminate the infective forms for safe consumption. EPIDEMIOLOGYToxoplasmosis is a global disease which burden humans and animals. The infection is usually asymptomatic and mild, while the prevalence of exposure increases with age and the lifestyle. There are conflicting reports regarding the decline of the seroprevalence rates of Toxoplasma infection in United States. It is estimated 2. U. S. A. population 1. Toxoplasma 3. 1. However, the infection report is on the rise in Europe 5. Africa, South America, and Asia where the rate of infection is as high as 9. Toxoplasma infection is endemic in the farms and rural areas representing poverty and lack of appropriate hygiene. In the United States, the age adjusted Toxoplasmaseroprevalence among people from 6 to 4. Amongst immunocompetent individuals, the initial infection usually leads to a latent chronic infection that is effectively controlled by the host immune system. While, babies and immunosuppressed individuals are in a higher risk for active toxoplasmosis. The immunosuppressed ones include transplant recipients bone marrow and solid organ transplants, patients with hematologic malignancy e. Hodgkins disease, and AIDS patients 7. The incidence of clinical manifestation of toxoplasmosis is uncommon among patients with CD4 counts 2. Toxoplasmaencephalitis has been reported in 3. AIDS patients with CD4 counts of less than 1. Toxoplasma prophylaxis or highly active antiretroviral therapy HAART 7. The incidence of Toxoplasma induced encephalitis and the rate of mortality have significantly declined in United States and Europe where HAART and prophylactics for opportunistic infections including Toxoplasma are used and the guidelines for the use are appropriately implemented. Humans and animals become infected by ingestion of contaminated food or hands with oocysts excreted from infected cats or consumption of undercooked meat containing cysts. Sporulated oocysts are transmitted to humans through soil during gardening, handling infected cats feces, contaminated fruits and vegetables or unpurified water 1. Indeed, contaminated water is reported as a major source for infection during pregnancy in rural area 3. In the United States most farm animals including pig, lamb, goat, chicken and game animals were found infected to harbor Toxoplasma cysts 4. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONSImmunocompetent Patients. Acute toxoplasmosis is mostly subclinical and unnoticed in immune intact humans and animals with flue like symptoms, fever, and cervical lymphadenopathy. The symptoms may last for a few weeks or up to months. In some individuals the clinical symptoms can be broad and mimic viral diseases such as infectious mononucleosis, cytomegalovirus and human herpes virus 6 with manifestation of sore throat, splenohepatomegaly, and presence of immature lymphocytes in blood stream. In addition, patients may develop symptoms of hepatitis, pancreatitis, splenitis, myocarditis, myositis and pain 3.